GMS Interneer oil & gas equipment users in Thailand

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Citech Ltd. developed specifically for the offshore oil and gas industry

CiTECH Ltd
are an acknowledged leading supplier of Waste Heat Recovery Units (WHRU's). The CiBAS WHRU has been developed specifically for the offshore oil and gas industry as an all-in-one package with built in silencer and bypass sleeve for flow isolation and control. When compared to other types of WHRU, the CiBAS range offers a 30% to 50% reduction in overall weight and space envelope. The unique and patented design of CiBAS alleviates the need for a separate silencer, isolation and control dampers together with operational and bypass stacks.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/category/citech/

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Wellhead Xmas Tree

Cameron's MH Series hydraulic actuators are designed to be used with most manufacturers' gate valves. Recommended for high-thrust applications required for large-bore and high-pressure valves – when there is no gas source or when the well gas is too sour – the MH Series offers a reliable and robust actuator that can be installed in harsh and remote environments.

Cameron's MH Series hydraulic actuators
        - Fail-Safe Design
        - Rising and Non-Rising Stem Designs
        - Non-Pressurized Actuator Housing
        - Superior Piston Design
        - Cameron's Seal Technology
        - Fixed rift Adjustment
        - Corrosion-Resistant Materials
        - Ease of Maintenance
        - Accessories

Wellhead Xmas Tree 's Standard Actuator Data
        - API 6A actuators for use with 1-13/16" through 9-1/16" nominal gate valves
        - API 6A Appendix F, PR-2 qualified
        - Temp -20° F to 250° F (-29° C to 121° C) standard temperature rating (other temperatures available)
        - 3" to 9" standard piston sizes for above referenced valve groups
        - 6000-psi maximum operating pressure
        - Wide range of options and accessories available

Wellhead Xmas Tree 's Standard Bonnet Data
        - Standard stem and bonnet materials API material/temperature class dependent
        - PSL-1, 2, 3, and 4 available
        - Standard bonnet backseat test port provided
        - Standard packing leak indicator port provided
https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/wellhead-xmas-tree/

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Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller for waste heat recovery

Absorption Chiller is an equipment which uses heat source from natural gas ,diesel, solar energy and waste heat to produce a cooling system.  As its practical function, absorption chiller is normally installed in air-conditioning building such as factory, office, hospital or airport. Especially, the machine utilize the waste heat recovery from gas engine or gas turbine.

Although the electricity is in limited situation, absorption chiller also can activate. Furthermore, it only consumes a small amount of electric energy in the systems, compared to electric chillers.

During the process, the absorption chiller uses a  lithium bromide solution (LiBr) as the absorbent and water as the refrigerant. The reason a lithium bromide because of not being a hazardous chemical.  Another outstanding characteristic is non-CFCs and non-HFCs which are harmful to the environment.

Here are more advantages of Absorption chiller:  Driving power from Heat Energy, Less electric energy consumption, Easy maintenance, Low maintenance costs, Less noise and vibration, Non-CFCs or Non-HFCs refrigerant and Environmental-friendly.

Principle

Firstly, weak solution in the absorber which is suitable for concentration mixed with lithium bromide solution and water is pumped through the heat exchanger. Then, It becomes the intermediate solution before flowing into the generator separating the water and lithium bromide solution. The generator utilizes the heat energy from waste heat such as Flue gas, Steam or Hot water.

In the Generator, the water will be changed to vapor and leave the lithium bromide solution, but it will not be left as a waste. It will be formed as a liquid and drop to bottom of the generator. The liquid flows down to preheat the weak solution in the heat exchanger and becomes strong solution. Then, it flows back to spray over the absorber to absorb the vapor for next process again.

Meanwhile, the vapor which left from lithium bromide solution in generator flows into the condenser. The solution will be cooldown by the cooling water, then it will be condensate to the refrigerant. It flows down to the evaporator due to the vacuum condition which made the water boiling temperature becomes low.

In the Evaporator, 12°C chilled water which returns from operation system flows into the evaporator. The unwanted thermal energy will be extracted by spraying refrigerant over the chilled water pipe in the evaporator. Therefore, the chilled water temperature will be decreased to 7°C.

Finally, after the refrigerant water extracted unwanted thermal from chilled water, it will become the vapor again as low boiling temperature under the vacuum condition in the evaporator. After that, the vapor will be absorbed by strong solution and become weak solution for the new cycle again.

Shuangliang Waste Heat Recovery Solution Provider
Shuangliang has dedicated to the study of industrial waste heat recovery over 3 decades. As endless attempt, Shuangliang is gradually developing from as equipment supplier into a system provider.

About 60% of all energy generated in the world is left as a waste heat. Unfortunately, most of the waste heat will be degraded as traditional heat recovery technologies can't activate effectively. From this point, Shuangliang  Eco-Energy System Co., Ltd. wants to solve this problem by turning it to useable energy.

Shuangliang Eco-Energy Systems Co., Ltd. has been founded since 1982. According to the expertise, it is the first and only listed company in the absorption chiller industry. Eventually, the company joined with Shuangliang Group, a large enterprise that provides manufacturing, chemical and materials, and hotel services.

Product
- Flue Gas Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
Flue gas absorption chiller is applied as an important role of the tri-generation system. Normally, gas engine produces electricity while exhaust heat drives an energy of absorption chiller. According to this process, the waste heat from gas engine can provide cooling capacity for any communities and buildings.

As a combination of cooling, heating, and power generation system, the flue gas absorption chiller can increase capacity utilization and efficiency up to 85%. Moreover, the absorption chiller enhances power supply safety from the grid and leads more electricity saving. From several advantages, the absorption chiller can enhance environmental protection and sustainably economic development.

- Direct Fired Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
Due to the increase of electricity price and continual concern to environmental issues, Shuangliang eco-energy develops the high energy-efficiency. Absorption chiller is energized by the heat from directly burning light oil, heavy oil, industrial gas, or natural gas. By using heat of different levels, the direct fired absorption chiller can produce chilled water temperature from 5 °C to 7 °C which mostly used in the air conditioning system.

- Steam Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
The Steam Lithium Bromide Absorption chiller is one of Shuangliang famous models. Steam pressure with 0.01-0.15 MPa can provide a cooling capacity of 350~11630 kW. Also, 5°C to 7°C chilled water is suitable for the central air conditioning system or industrial process.

Due to its advantage, waste steam from the steam turbine in power generation can be reused as an energy for absorption chiller, also steam from the boiler

Especially, Shuangliang double-effect absorption chiller is in the most leading manufacturer. With high COPs of 1.43, it can provide high efficiency, low energy consumption and low-operating costs.

- Hot Water Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
With Shuangliang standard specifications, the temperature range of hot water about 90°-130°C is applied as a main role of the hot water single stage and two-stage absorption chillers. Moreover, Shuangliang standard specifications are available for suitable temperature and customer's requirement.

The cooling capacity of hot water absorption chiller is between 350~6890 kW. As the chilled water temperature is about 5 °C –7 °C which is useful for air conditioning system and industrial process.

To reuse waste heat recovery, utilizing waste hot water from gas engine or other industrial process in hot water absorption chiller is one of effective ways to save energy, reduce electricity cost and saves considerable amount of operating costs.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/lithium-bromide-absorption-chiller/

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Air cooled condenser (ACC) for thermal power plant

DIRECT AIR COOLED CONDENSER SYSTEM
In regions which are remote from water resources, air cooled condenser (ACC) is an important role of a condensing equipment.
Air Cooled Condenser utilizes ambient air to remove heat out of exhaust steam for thermal or biomass power plants.

Generally, applying another type in an insufficient-water area needs to make a water reservoir to collect the water for serving cooling tower. Thus,  Air cooled condenser (ACC) will help reduce capital cost of such a water reservoir, save water consumption cost during operation. Also, it solves the problem of diverting water from the community.


In the thermal power plants, exhaust steam from the steam turbine flow into the air cooled condenser (ACC) where the condensation occurs. Then the condensate-water returns to the boiler in a closed loop. Meanwhile the exhaust steam coming from the turbine is at a low pressure, the Air Cooled Condenser works at pressure as vacuum to avoid the pressure drop increase and impact to the efficiency of power generation, and then the non-condensable gases will be removed continuously by the air evacuation system.

Configuration and Scope of Shuangliang Air Cooled Condenser
Scope normally covers equipment and ducts from turbine exhaust to inlet of condensate pump, mainly including:
      - Tube bundle
      - Air supply system
      - Air evacuation system
      - Condensate system
      - Cleaning system
      - Exhaust steam ducting system
      - Supporting structure
      - Draining system
      - Electric system
      - Instrument & control system

Principle of Air cooled condenser
The working principle of Air Cooled Condenser is to distribute the exhaust steam from the steam turbine straightly to the stream condensers in several rows through ducting. At the same time, the large axial-flow fans intake air and sweep over the tube bundles externally to carry away heat. In tube bundles, the exhaust steam gradually changes to condensates and is accumulated in the condensate tank through the bottom headers. Moreover, the vacuum of the whole Air cooled condenser (ACC) covers by the air evacuation system. For this reason, the steam turbine can activate smoothly and confirm power generation efficiency.

Air cooled condenser process

The steam condensers are consisted of two types of tube bundles: parallel- flow and counter-flow types.

In the parallel-flow tube bundles, most of the steam is condensed, meanwhile the non-condensing gas is extracted in counter-flow tube bundles which they are connected through the bottom headers.

Additionally, the advantages of the direct air cooled condenser system (ACC) is occupying less floor area, various anti-freezing methods and flexible arrangement.

Technical and Advantage of Shuangliang Air cooled condenser
Single-Row Tube
Shuangliang Single-Row Tube is one of the best selective innovations which is applied in Air Cooled Condenser (ACC), characteristics designed by welded large flat tube and aluminum snake-like fins, are rolled from single-sided aluminum cladded carbon steel strip. The flat tubes and fins are connected by brazing.

Shuangliang Single-Row Tube design

1. High heat transfer efficiency
The heat exchange at both sides of tube bundle is fully activating, mean to the exhaust steam has large size of flow area and very low-pressure loss, so the heat transfer efficiency is extremely high.

2. Strong resistance to corrosion
To have strong corrosion resistance, the external surface of base tube for the tube bundle is clad with aluminum alloy, the heat exchange fins of tube bundle also aluminum alloy spray coating, even after those materials are processed, aluminum oxide protective layer will still be formed thereon to achieve good corrosion resistance.

3. High strength and good cleaning ability
Welding several single-row fin tubes and tube-sheet was also applied in order to strengthen all the structures. Moreover, this process would apply for facilitate installation and transportation. Another distinctive characteristic, using straight-line type in single-row tube fins are easy to wash with high-pressure water without any deformation.

4. Good anti-freezing performance
In order that the condensate flows more smoothly, we create a large length-width ratio of the base tube. Furthermore, this specific characteristic is able to reduce the extent of sub-cooling and the risk of tube freezing in winter.

5. Weld seam position
The weld seam is on the arc of the base tube of the single-row tubes, The arc spray aluminum coating has the better welding strength.

Shuangliang no need to be worried about the leak occurring during the operation since it can be repaired immediately without removing the entire tube bundle or replacement. Above all, we do believe in Easy maintenance and low maintenance costs.

The weld seam is on the arc of the base tube

6. Single-Row Tube Bundle Fatigue test
Evacuated by vacuum pumping, the tube bundle will be reached to vacuum condition and then returned to normal pressure. After that, cycle tests will evaluate the number of cycles (fatigue life) in which the change occurs abruptly in the single-row tube.

To ensure reliance of Shuangliang Air cooled condenser (ACC), the qualified value of the product fatigue life should be more than 1,000 times and more than ten times the actual fatigue times. Due to qualified value, our customers can assure that our product's safety lasts the 30-year design life.

THREE MAJOR TEST DEVICES
1. Performance testing device on tube bundles of Air cooled condenser (ACC)
The Performance testing device on tube bundle as applies for experimenting heat exchange performance of various types of fined tube bundle structure and online random test of finished products.

After pressure and temperature of the steam are gradually reducing, the testing device will simulate several operating backpressures of the steam turbine, measure the heat exchange performance and resistance loss of the tube bundle. It also obtains the heat exchange coefficient and air resistance of tube bundle at different air speed and internal flow resistance of tube bundle at different steam flow speed.

Furthermore, to evaluate actual performance of tube bundle, the testing device is also utilized for examining thermal performance of tube bundle.

2. The unique environmental test laboratory : 1×4 Air cooled condenser (ACC) environmental test device
Shuangliang Air cooled condenser is available for worldwide. It can simulate the summer operating conditions and winter operating conditions of Air cooled condenser (ACC), the unique environmental test laboratory will imitate ambient temperature of 50°C~-25°C. Therefore, there are two operating conditions to test in different situations.

One is the summer operating condition. It's for testing the heat transfer performance of the tube bundles of the Air cooled condenser (ACC) which provides the basis for the design of the actual Air cooled condenser (ACC).

The other is the winter operating condition. It is for evaluating whether the control program of Air cooled condenser (ACC) is valid for antifreeze protection measures during operating conditions such as the machine functional of start, stop and low load operating conditions. Finally, it could test the minimum antifreeze steam flow under different temperature conditions.

Environmental test device

3. The unique large full-performance test bed: Hot-state test device for one unit of 1000MW Air-cooled condenser (ACC)

The unique large full-performance test device can simulate the main operating conditions of power station for the performance test, heat exchange performance, system reliability, stability, and economy of Shuangliang Air Cooled Condenser (ACC). Particularly ensure the ACC can operate capacity at summer full load and winter anti-freezing running reliability.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/air-cooled-condenser-acc/

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LNG pressure regulator unit

LNG Station LNG pressure regulator unit
A system which adjusts the pressure of gas and fluid to an appropriate level is Pressure regulator unit (PRU). The process depends on negative feedback from the controlled pressure. This regulator may be used as an integral device for liquid and gas which includes a pressure setting, a sensor and a restrictor all in one body.

Application of Pressure regulator unit (PRU)
The primary function of a pressure reducing regulator is to control the flow of gas through the regulator to a desired value while sustaining an output pressure constantly. While the load flow reduces, the Pressure regulator unit flow will reduce too. In contrast, While the load flow rises, the regulator flow rises to sustain controlled pressure from gas shortage in the pressure system. Generally, the controlled pressure won't be much different from the set point for a wide range of flow rates. Moreover, the flow through the regulator is expected to be constant and the regulated pressure won't be oscillated excessively.

The pressure regulating system includes emergency shut-off valve, multi-stage heat exchanger, multi-stage pressure regulator, relief valve, intelligent flow meter, bypass valve and control system, etc. The control system includes pressure, temperature, flow display and safety interlocking. The heating system includes gas boiler, hot water circulation pump or electric heater.

A high differential pressure appears in LNG pressure regulator skid. Firstly, this device connects with LNG vaporizer by hose and quickly connector. After that, LNG which changes to NG runs into pressure regulating unit through the high-pressure hose, ball valve, filter, and cut-off valve. The pressure will be about 1.0 ~ 4.0Mpa depending on customer requirement by pressure regulator.

The secondary regulator will control the gas pressure following to customer's demand. In case of low pressure of the outlet, the third pressure regulating will be necessary.

The gas flow meter will measure NG that passes it. Finally, it will be sent to middle pressure pipeline.  Normally, LNG Pressure regulating unit can be assembled by contractor at the site. Furthermore, Gms Interneer can provide pressure regulating unit skid for portable platform as temporary station.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/pressure-regulator-unit/

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LNG Ambient Air Vaporizer (AAV)

GMS has responded the continuous growth of LNG industry and seek out leading technology to serve our customer's demand in developing LNG business such as, LNG storage tank, vaporizer, pressure regulating unit (PRU) or even in entire LNG station and others.

LNG Ambient Air Vaporizer (AAV) that we provide comes from leading technology manufacturers with international certification that has been accepted all over the world and competitive price. The vaporizer material and design comply ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.

Overview – LNG Ambient Air Vaporizer (AAV)
About the vaporizer, Gms Interneer offers low-high pressure range. The vaporizer is designed for specific customer's requirements.Moreover, our product ensures that low temperature gas would not get into the pipeline. Moreover, the consulting service for LNG equipment design, standard and DOEB authorization is available for our customers.

Ambient air vaporizers are relative heat exchangers which vaporize liquified gas by using absorbed heat from the ambient air. Liquid gas passes through a number of interconnected tubes in various series and parallel paths. Due to this simple principle of operation, these vaporizers have no movable parts which results in zero OPEX and low maintenance costs. Plus, Ambient air vaporizers are in a wide range of application throughout the industry.

Application of LNG Ambient Air Vaporizer (AAV)
The function of the LNG ambient air vaporizer is transforming liquified natural gas (LNG) to natural gas (NG). Heat transfer mechanism in the vaporizer is ambient air convection heat transfer to heat up LNG in liquid state to become vapor state or natural gas. After, the natural gas shall be provided to customers for utilizing as fuel in industrial or power plant. Ambient air vaporizers represent the most cost-effective equipment to vaporize or re-gasify liquid cryogenics.

The components of vaporizer that is important for heat transfer between LNG and ambient air is tubes cladded with aluminum for enhancing heat transfer area as shown in the picture. This feature can help the vaporizer to be more compact.

The ambient air vaporizer can categorize as application features following
      - Low pressure ambient vaporizer for the pressure is not exceed 40 Barg
      - High pressure ambient vaporizer for the pressure is more or equal to 40 Barg
      - Fan forced vaporizer for controlling air flow rate efficiently
      - Mobile vaporizer in frame for locatable application
      - Pressure building vaporizers for controlling pressure in a storage tank

Another alternative
Fan assisted Vaporizer or Fan Ambient temperature vaporizer is very useful for any application. It provides increased run-times for vaporizer by increasing substantial flow rate in smaller footprints. As air forced upon the fins ice accumulation takes place, which reduce defrost cycle and improves ability for frequent switching of LNG fan forced Vaporizer. Contrasted from Natural ambient atmospheric vaporizers, Fan Assisted Vaporizers are covered from all sides with inverted fan on the top. This high velocity fan forced fresh air from top, which substantiates downward flow of heavy air further and almost doubles the regasification capacity of Vaporizer. Fan forced Vaporizer have been proved that they are worth in congested industrial units where Natural wind draft cannot accessible.

Project Reference
LNG-IND of EA Bio Innovation Project and LNG-IND 2 Stations AMITA Technology Thailand Project

https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/lng-ambient-air-vaporizer-aav/

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LNG storage tank for Permanent LNG station

LNG station facilitates for storing LNG, changing to natural gas, and regulating pressure prior to transfer to customers. LNG stations consists of important equipment such as LNG storage tank , gas exchange equipment (Vaporizer) and pressure control equipment (Pressure regulator unit).

Liquefied natural gas station (LNG Station)  and LNG storage tank will be under the supervision of DOEB: Department of Energy Business, Ministry of Energy. The engineering design, construction, installation, and safety must be strictly carried out under ministerial regulations and NFPA 59A.

Liquefied natural gas storage tank
LNG storage tank has its special function which stores liquid at very low temperatures -196 °C or LNG at -162 °C. The tank is designed by double-layered containers including inner containing LNG and outer vessels. Between Inner and Outer vessels, there is an annular space which is a vacuum working as an insulator. This vacuum layer is to protect heat transfer from outside. The tank is designed in both vertical and horizontal tank according to ASME SECTION VIII DIVISION1 as following.

outer folding process

inner tank with piping

The welding of the outer and inner tanks

ASME SECTION VIII (PRESSURE VESSELS), Division 1
Division 1 provides requirements applicable to the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and certification of pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures exceeding 15 Psig. Such vessels may fire or unfire. This pressure may obtain from an external source or by the application of heat from a direct or indirect source, or any combination thereof. Specific requirements apply to several classes of material used in pressure vessel construction, and to fabrication methods such as welding, forging, and brazing. Division 1 contains mandatory and non-mandatory appendices detailing supplementary design criteria, nondestructive examination, and inspection acceptance standards. Rules pertaining to the use of the single ASME certification mark with the U, UM and UV designators are also included

Application of LNG storage tank
1. Filling circuit
The cycle of filling LNG into the tank begins with LNG passing a check valve through a separate pipe into Top Filling valve and Bottom Filling valve. These valves control LNG flow to regulate the pressure during filling
1.1  LNG flows into the upper of LNG tank which has compressed gas (Compressed Gas). Therefore, LNG with a lower temperature combines with compressed gas. As a result, gas pressure in the top of tank is lower.
1.2 LNG also flows into the lower of LNG tank which is liquefied gas state. Therefore, the amount of added LNG to the tank and is constantly increasing. This will cause higher gas compression in the top of the tank.
To fill LNG and control the pressure efficiently , the amount of LNG flow must be controlled by on-off valve.

2.  Pressure build-up coil
Using LNG consistently, the decreasing volume of the liquid lower the tank pressure. The principle of enhancing pressure depends on changing state of LNG from liquid to gas. With flowing through pressure build-up unit, the liquid will be changed to gas phase. Then, it returns to the upper tank to compensate lost pressure. Another important equipment is Regulator which controls on-off valve relying on the set pressure. When the tank pressure drops lower than the set point, the regulator will turn on the LNG flow. In contrast, the tank pressure increases higher than the set point, the regulator will narrow the LNG flow.

To sum up , the heat exchanger (Pressure Build-up coil) must be designed appropriately.

3. Pressure and Level Gauge
Monitoring tank pressure and volume are critical to its usage. Therefore, this device will have the principle as below

The mostly used pressure gauge is the Bourdon type to measure the pressure directly from the cylinder head which has different sizes and measurement ranges according to each type of tank and capacity.

Liquid level gauge  mostly useห in differential pressure type which applies the pressure difference between two points to measure the level of LNG tank. One is from the upper of the tank. Also, the other is from the bottom of the tank. This pressure difference (Delta P) converts to be in units of height, such as millimeters of water (mmH2O) or Inch H2O to represent the height of the volume of LNG tank. In order to find the LNG quantity, there is a content chart to convert the height to weight.

4. Pressure Relief Valve
LNG can vaporize due to the heat. Although it is stored in the tank, it can vaporize as well, called as Normal Evaporation. Moreover, if the gas phase rises, the pressure will also gather. Unless it reduces pressure from other factors such as application or pressure release, the excessive pressure will reach to set point of the pressure safety valve. The safety valve will open to relieve the pressure to the set point.

This safety valve will calculate the relief rate properly for the tank and usually have 2 sets (1 set = 2 each) to switch operation and to calibrate.

5. Economizer
This process has a major device which is the Back-Pressure Regulator (BRP) or called Economizer. The economizer is set following the pressure outlet at the tank header. When the pressure reaches to the set point, the vapor will flow to liquefied gas circuit. Thus, the excessive pressure from economizer will be sent to customers instead of releasing out from the safety valve.

6. LNG supply circuit (Supply Circuit)
There are two types of LNG supply.
1. Direct liquid application which will pass through the on-off valve and flow directly to the next process, e.g. Vaporizer.
2. Applications connected to the Economizer system shall be applied for process that requires gas phase.

https://www.gmsthailand.com/product/lng-storage-tank-gms-interneer/

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What is Cogeneration Power Plant

Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of two or more types of energy from a single fuel source. It is sometimes referred to as cogeneration, distributed generation, or recycled energy. In general, cogeneration power facilities are 50 to 70 percent more efficient than single-generation plants. Cogeneration is the utilization of otherwise wasted heat (such as the exhaust from a manufacturing facility) to deliver extra energy advantages, such as heat or electricity, to the building in which it is operating. Because recycling waste heat prevents the need of more destructive fossil fuels, cogeneration improves both the bottom line and the environment.

Even though combined heat and power (CHP) technology is sometimes referred to as cogeneration, there are important distinctions. Cogeneration is the process by which a simple cycle gas turbine generates electricity and steam, as well as steam utilized in other processes such as drying. The steam, however, is not utilized to power a steam turbine.

CHP combined-cycle power plants may generate both electricity and usable heat energy from a single source. Thermal energy (steam or hot water) gathered may be utilized to heat and cool as well as generate electricity for a range of industrial purposes. CHP is used by manufacturers, municipalities, commercial buildings, and institutions such as universities, hospitals, and military sites to cut energy costs, boost power dependability, and lower carbon emissions. Because it possesses the industry's biggest gas turbine product range, GE is ideally positioned to provide its clients with the essential solutions to meet the requisite power-to-heat ratio for their CHP and cogeneration systems.

Process of Cogeneration
A cogeneration plant, like a CHP plant, generates both electricity and heat. Cogen technology, on the other hand, differs from CHP in that it generates energy using a simple cycle gas turbine. The exhaust energy from the gas turbine is then utilized to generate steam. Rather of being redirected to power a steam turbine as in CHP, the steam is completely used in other processes.

Power Plant with Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
A combined heat and power (CHP) power plant generates heat and electricity in a decentralized, energy-efficient manner. CHP plants may be constructed to power a single building or enterprise, or they can be designed to power an entire district or utility.

The main mover in CHP is powered by a fuel, which generates both electricity and heat. The heat is then utilized to bring the water to a boil and create steam. Some of the steam is utilized to power a process, while the rest powers a steam turbine, which generates further power. In a Cogen application, the steam is completely used in a process that generates no more electricity.

The Benefits of Combined Heat and Power
When compared to traditional energy generation, a CHP power plant may provide various benefits and advantages, including:
       - Increased efficiency: CHP generates both electricity and heat while using less fuel than typical energy plants. It also collects heat and steam to create extra electricity, reducing the demand for fuel even more.
       - Lower emissions: Because CHP systems use less fuel, they may reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants.
       - Lower running expenses: CHP's efficiency lowers operating costs and may offer a hedge against rising energy prices.
       - Dependability: Because CHP is a self-contained energy plant, it reduces dependence on the energy grid and may provide increased energy security and power generation dependability even in the event of a catastrophe or grid outage.

Large structures and infrastructures can benefit from CHP.
Intelligent combined heat and power production (CHP) makes a substantial contribution to energy generation for hospitals, airports, and other big buildings. CHP solutions not only help operators avoid large supply and distribution losses, but they also save 40% more fuel than separate generation and may help boost overall efficiency, profitability, and environmental responsibility.

The Benefits of Cogeneration
Cogeneration technologies, such as CHP, may provide greater savings and advantages than conventional power generation methods. Cogeneration, on the other hand, is inefficient compared to CHP since it does not employ steam to generate extra electricity.

         -  District heating: Cogeneration systems are used in district heating power plants to provide both energy and heating to local buildings and households. Unused steam is directed to provide extra energy when a CHP system is utilized for district heating.
         -  Industrial manufacturing: Industrial CHP plants enable enterprises that require a lot of energy to generate their own steady supply of electricity while increasing efficiency and lowering fuel use. CHP systems can power a wide range of industrial and manufacturing operations while also producing useful energy such as high-pressure steam, process heat, mechanical energy, or electricity.
         -  Institutions: Colleges and colleges, hospitals, jails, military bases, and other institutions rely on CHP facilities to satisfy their electrical and thermal energy requirements while enhancing power reliability. The CHP system has the potential to considerably reduce the costs and emissions associated with standard power generation methods.
         -  Municipal applications: Combined heat and power (CHP) is well-suited for municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Anaerobic digestion generates biogas in these facilities, which may be used to power onsite generators.
         -  Residential: CHP systems may be utilized to power energy-intensive multifamily buildings or to assist single-family houses in meeting their energy requirements.

When you have completed and commissioned your LNG Process and System and wish to run it commercially, you must register and obtain approval and a license to operate. The government entity in charge of these entry in the energy or oil and gas sector, particularly in Thailand, is known as the "Department of Energy Business" (DOEB).
https://www.gmsthailand.com/blog/what-is-cogeneration-power-plant/

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กองทุน GMS ช่วยเหลือชาวนาบ้านกลาง หมู่ 6 ทุ่งฝาย จังหวัดลำปาง ครั้งที่ 22
กองทุนGMS นี้ถูกจัดขึ้นตั้งแต่ปี 1 ตุลาคม ปี พ.ศ. 2553 เป็นแนวคิดของคุณสมเกียรติ ไชยศรีรัตนากูล ผู้ก่อตั้งบริษัท โดยนำเงินส่วนตัวมาช่วยเหลือชาวนาบ้านกลาง หมู่ 6 ต.ทุ่งฝาย จ.ลำปาง ในด้านการลงทุน เช่น การซื้อเมล็ดพันธุ์ข้าว ปุ๋ย หรือยาฆ่าแมลง ในนามบริษัท จี.เอ็ม.เอส ชาวบ้านจึงเรียกว่า "กองทุน จี.เอ็ม.เอส " ทั้งนี้เพื่อช่วยเพิ่มผลผลิตเมล็ดข้าว และ ช่วงสร้างอนาคตที่ดีขึ้นให้กับชาวนา

โดยมอบหมายคณะกรรมการ กองทุนGMS รายชื่อ ดังต่อไปนี้ ช่วยดูแล
1. คุณจำนงค์ ธรรมวงศ์  (ผู้ช่วยผู้ใหญ่บ้าน)
2. คุณพรพันธ์ พัฒพร
3. คุณจงกลณี ณ ลำปาง
4. คุณสุภิญ อินต๊ะสงคะ
5. คุณกาญจนาวดี เลี่ยมสกุล

นอกจากนี้มีการกำหนดเงื่อนไขและระยะเวลาการยืมคืน เพื่อให้เกิดการหมุนเวียนกับชาวนารายอื่น และได้รับโอกาสเช่นเดียวกัน

[wm5398]

Water Treatment in Oil & Gas Business

Reservoirs, according to many outside the oil and gas industry, are huge subterranean hydrocarbon lakes. In reality, hydrocarbons are found in porous layers of rock that are covered by impermeable rock or shale. Sandstone and limestone are the most common oil-bearing rocks. The pores in these rocks range in size from sub-micron to tens of microns. This enables fluids to pass through the rocks.

The water beneath the oil is also known as "connate" or "formation" water. Their origins differ. Connate water is water that was caught in rock during formation and whose composition can change over time. Under the impermeable cap rock, formation water is trapped with the hydrocarbons. When an oil well is dug, it produces oil, gas, and water all at the same time

Oil Separation
When reservoir fluids (gas, oil, and water) are brought to the surface for separation and treatment, the pressure drops, resulting in the formation of insoluble scales. In basic language, decreased pressure causes soluble bicarbonates to form carbonate ions,

- releasing CO2 gas: 2HCO3− → CO32− + CO2↑ + H2O
When coupled with calcium ions, the carbonate ion produces insoluble carbonate scales. This can result in reduced flowrates (loss of money) as well as a loss of system integrity. To avoid scale formation, reservoir fluids can be dosed with a scale inhibitor chemical while still under high pressure. The first stage of oil separation is typically a horizontal three-phase separator sized to optimize oil and water residence times. It is critical to handle the removal and disposal of solids generated by the use of oil, gas, and water. All gas/oil/water/solid separation in these units is governed by Stokes' Law.'

It is, in truth, far from clean. It will contain particles as well as residual oil in the form of small droplets distributed in water. Water will include certain dissolved hydrocarbons and gases, such as (corrosive) carbon dioxide and lighter hydrocarbons, as well as water-soluble chemicals required to enhance hydrocarbon production. Water from onshore and offshore oil and gas production systems is discharged into local river courses, estuaries or near-coastal waterways, or the sea from offshore oil and gas production platforms. The presence of potential toxins in these streams must be addressed in order to protect the ecology. A little number of hydrocarbons in the water may be recovered and reintroduced into the main production system

Wastewater de-oiling
Mineral therapy was used in the early stages of treatment, which eliminated larger oil droplets but not small ones. For removing dispersed oil droplets from produced water, the following methods have been developed:
      - increasing the overall droplet size (coalescence)
      - systems which change the specific gravity of the oil droplet by attaching to it a bubble of gas
      - techniques that apply increased gravitational forces to the separation process, for example, hydro cyclones and centrifuges

These advances in reducing residual hydrocarbons in produced waters enable dispersed oil in water (OIW) concentrations as low as 40 mg/l. Initially, this was sufficient to meet the discharge standards of the UK regulatory agency. A new regulation mandates offshore businesses to reduce the number of hydrocarbons leaked overboard on an annual basis.

This amount of oil should be 15% less than the total tonnage delivered by the individual assets in 2001. Any quantity of hydrocarbon released in excess of the permitted level is subject to a fine of £108 per kilogram. These calculations do not take into account new fields or the fact that water production grows with time.

Currently, the maximum OIW value in produced waters is 30mg/l. As a result, some operators must treat generated water to significantly higher standards than previously, while others have set a zero produced water discharge goal for both existing and new assets. The competent environmental protection agency regulates onshore discharges, which may include maximum limitations for heavy metals and dissolved hydrocarbons

Other waters
Two more processes occur while the oil is produced. As the gas cap expands, so does the oil/water contact. The first mechanism is unfavorable because it permits dissolved gas in oil to leave solution. Gas is more mobile than oil and will gravitate toward producing wells.

This is undesirable since it means that oil is bypassed and remains in the reservoir. When the oil/water contact is increased, more water is created along with the oil. This decreases oil income while increasing the amount of water that must be treated before it can be discharged

How can these approaches be avoided, or at the very least delayed, until the field's revenue is maximized? The advantages of allowing water to flow into oilfields were discovered by chance as early as the early American oilfields. Water used to infiltrate oil-bearing strata by mistake and flush the oil towards the producing wells. Since then, knowledge has expanded significantly, and water injection is now employed in nearly all new oilfields.

The injected water has two purposes: it maintains reservoir pressure high enough so that gas cannot leave solution, and it creates an immiscible flood front that drives oil towards the wells. Regardless of the approach used, the total volume of oil recovered will increase dramatically. According to World Oil, a successful water injection operation may increase overall hydrocarbon recovery by 40%.
        - Seawater (if the asset is offshore or near the coast with a few exceptions)
        - Produced Waters (see above)
        - Aquifer waters (if easily accessible)
        - River or estuarine waters
        - Domestic and/or industrial waste waters

The Saudi Aramco Qurayyah system purifies 7 million barrels of seawater per day (1.1 million m3/day) before pumping it 350-400 kilometers inland for injection into the Ghawar oilfield. Since 1978, the plant's capacity has been increased, and it now serves the Khurais oilfield. Before they can be safely injected into a hydrocarbon-bearing deposit, all of them must be treated

Injection Water Use
The current issue of injection water treatment will concentrate on saltwater, which is the most commonly used injection water. Seawater contains suspended particles, bacteria, and dissolved oxygen, all of which may wreak havoc on the reservoir's ability to store water for extended periods of time, as well as the materials used to manage the water. Pipelines, injection wells, and any metals used beneath the ground to transport water to the reservoir are examples. Because saltwater may be used for cooling, it must first meet the cooling quality standards. This includes the removal of pathogens, marine life, and the treatment of larger suspended particles.

This is accomplished by injecting broad-spectrum bactericides, mostly chlorine in the form of sodium hypochlorite, into the water supply pumps. This is typically produced via seawater electrolysis. The larger suspended particles, such as hard–shelled marine animals and plankton, are next removed via coarse filtration. These filters remove a variety of particles depending on how the water is used. The typical range for solid removal is 80m to 6.4mm. After cooling, water injected into a hydrocarbon-bearing deposit may require further filtration.

There are now two schools of thought on this topic: one advocate's filtration to avoid reservoir pore obstruction, while the other claims that cold seawater entering hot rock will produce rock fissures, allowing water (and particles) to flow freely. A bank of high-rate dual media downflow filters is often used for secondary filtering. After eliminating the sediments and most bacteria, the dissolved oxygen must be treated.

Because carbon steel is preferred for handling the high pressures required to inject water into the formation, the dissolved oxygen must be removed. This oxygen is removed from the seawater using vacuum deaeration, which entails a vertical tank with many vacuum stages.

The remaining dissolved oxygen is removed using a scavenger chemical based on sulphite : SO32− + O2 → SO42−
  The first stage vacuum is typically provided by liquid ring vacuum pumps, with lower vacuums provided by air/gas ejectors. In most cases, the pump seal/cooling water is cold filtered seawater. The conditioned saltwater is then pushed under high pressure to the water injection wells. The switch from aerobic to anaerobic conditions downstream of the deaerator can allow some anaerobic microorganisms to grow, notably sulphate reduction bacteria, potentially jeopardizing the integrity of any carbon steel systems Microbiologically influenced corrosion is often mitigated by intermittent use of organic, non-oxidizing biocides (MIC). No corrosive properties like chlorine. Aldehydes, quaternary ammonium compounds, and various kinds of quaternary phosphonium compounds are dosed alone or in combination as single or mixed chemical biocides. Organic biocides are expensive and are typically dosed once a week for 1-2 hours at 1,000 mg/l.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/blog/water-treatment-in-oil-gas-business/

[wm5398]

Steel Pipe in Oil & Gas Business

The Oil and Gas industry is undoubtedly the world's largest in terms of financial worth. Oil and gas companies frequently contribute considerably to national GDP and employ millions of people worldwide. The most common products in the oil and gas business are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol).

The three major areas are upstream, midstream, and downstream.
      - Upstream refers to the search for underwater and subterranean natural gas and oil resources, as well as exploratory well drilling.
      - Midstream refers to the transportation, storage, and processing of oil and gas.
      - The downstream market consists of the filtering of raw materials collected during the upstream phase. It is concerned with the refining of crude oil and the purification of natural gas

Conditions that are demanding
  The oil and gas industry are well-known for working in tough environments with potentially hazardous substances. As a result, special metal grades have been developed to withstand corrosion and extreme temperatures. As the oil and gas sector hunts for new hazardous locations, demand for corrosive resistant duplex steel products rises. With increasing depth of offshore oil exploration, the pressure on duplex and super duplex stainless steel pipes deployed in hostile corrosive environments grows

Stainless steel applications and advantages
Super duplex steel is used by oil and gas firms for a variety of reasons, including:
      - Excellent corrosion resistance, including pitting and intergranular corrosion.
      - Greater tensile and yield strength • Excellent weldability

As a result, Super Duplex Stainless Steel may be found in pipe systems, separators, scrubbers, and pumps, as well as manifolds, heat exchangers, and flowlines. Stainless steel is employed in a wide range of nautical applications, including offshore oil rigs. Because crude oil is corrosive, stainless steel is perfect for storing it as well as for subsea applications such as deep-sea drilling, where equipment must be extremely durable and corrosion resistant.

Duplex 2205 (22 percent chromium, 5 percent nickel) and 2507 (25 percent chromium, 7 percent nickel) pipes, as well as Super Duplex 2507, are used in the offshore oil and gas sector for corrosion resistance. Duplex steel is also resistant to chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking and can tolerate high pressures. Petro Canada selected Super Duplex 2507 and Duplex 2205 pipes for its Newfoundland oil field because they can withstand high salt concentrations without corroding, have high tensile strength, excellent pitting, cracking, and impact resistance, little thermal expansion, and good conductivity. Stainless steel is a long-lasting material that may be used to properly store oil and gas production fluids. Stainless steel offers a great life cycle environmental and economic performance

Nickel Alloy and Inconel in Oil and Gas
  Nickel alloy and Inconel, together with stainless steel, are two of the most durable and flexible materials used in the oil and gas industry. Inconel is commonly used in high-performance equipment that must be reliable in harsh environments. Chemical processing and pressure vessels, well pump motor shafts, steam generators, turbine blades, seals, and combustors all use it.

Petroleum and natural gas Materials for Special Piping
  Special Piping Materials has been involved with the oil and gas industry since its inception. We collaborate with the top mills and manufacturers in the world to best serve our clients, many of whom are industry leaders and innovators. We will continue to find and supply the best grade super duplex stainless steel and Nickel Alloy items – pipes, flanges, and specialized fittings. Some people mix up a metal tube with a metal pipe, but those of us in the oil and gas industry know better In brief, tubing is used for structural purposes rather from pipe, which is used for liquid transmission. The wall thickness (as determined by the pipe's outer diameter) is crucial in tubing. Pipe size and walk thickness are key criteria to understand according to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Pipe Fundamentals
  Steel pipes are used by oil and gas industries to transport gas and liquids. SplashTRON® coating is widely requested by our clients for oil, gas, and propane pipelines. Tubing is usually more expensive than carbon or low alloy steel pipes. The internal diameter of the pipe influences how much product can flow through it. Yield strength and ductility are critical properties.

  Tubing Fundamentals Tubes are used to transport fluids but are also used as conveyor belt rollers, bearing casings, and concrete piling casings. In well construction, tubing refers to casing and tubing strings. Tolerances for tubes include their diameter, wall thickness, straightness, and roundness. Tubes must fulfill stringent specifications and be tested on a regular basis for hardness and tensile strength. Exact outside diameters disclose the weight-bearing capabilities of the tube.

Steel tubes with tiny outer diameters (up to 5 inches) and large lengths are used in pressure devices. Mild steel, aluminum, brass, copper, chrome, or stainless steel are all acceptable materials. Inevitably, the material used has an influence on the final user

Tubes and Pipes
There are two sorts of sizing systems:
          - The inside diameter (ID) of a cylinder is measured in inches. In Europe, the metric equivalent is DN, which stands for "diameter nominel." The thickness of the wall is measured by the schedule. The number is not a unit of measurement.
          - The schedule number denotes the thickness of the pipe wall. The same schedule number might appear on pipes with different wall thicknesses. Because the NPS is accounted for in the thickness. If two pipes have the same NPS but different schedule numbers, their IDs will vary but their ODs will remain the same. A conversion chart can assist in demonstrating the relationship between pipe size, schedules, and wall thicknesses

Seamless, ERW, and LSAW pipes
Seamless, ERW, and LSAW pipes are utilized in the oil and gas industry. These pipes are available in a range of materials and grades. Without welding, a seamless pipe is produced from a hard steel billet on a shrill rod. Welded pipes are created by cutting, bending, and then welding coils or plates.

Seamless pipes do not have seam welds. To make tubular sections, steel billets are heated and bored. In the oil and gas industry, seamless pipes are used to transport and distribute fluids such as oil, gas, slurries, steam, and acids. Also used in oil and gas refineries to refine oil and gas. In ordinary plumbing applications, seamless pipes can be employed.
          - ASTM A106, A333, A53, and API 5L Carbon Steel Seamless Pipes
          - ASTM A335 seamless ASTM A335 P5 to P91 chrome-moly alloy steel pipes for high temperature and pressure applications.
          - ASTM A312 stainless steel seamless pipes in 304, 316, 321, and 347 sizes.
          - ASTM A790/A928 double ferritic and austenitic duplex and super duplex seamless pipes.
          - Seamless pipes are offered in Inconel, Hastelloy, Cupronickel, Monel, and Nickel

ERW piping (Electric Resistance Welding)
ERW pipes are made from steel coils. These pipes are constructed using coils that have been uncoiled, polished, cut, and electronically aligned into the pipe shape. The diameters of these pipes range from 1/2 to 20 inches. Carbon steel (ASTM A53) and stainless steel ERW pipes are offered (ASTM A312). ASME B36.10 and B36.19 are the basic guidelines for these Pipes. In terms of pricing and performance, ERW Pipes are an excellent alternative to Seamless Pipes.

Pipes made of LSAW (Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welding)
Welding via submerged arc LSAW tubing Steel plates is cut, bent, and welded together. LSAW pipes come in bigger diameters than traditional pipes. These pipes range in size from 16 to 24 inches, although they may be utilized for pipelines up to 48 inches in length. LSAW pipes are classified into two categories. Spiral types include HSAW, SSAW, and SAWL. Both the interior and exterior of DSAW pipes have a junction weld. However, LSAW pipes have just one seam weld on the pipe cover. 5L large-diameter LSAW pipes are frequently used to carry hydrocarbons across vast distances. Spiral weld pipes (HSAW or SSAW) are rarely used in the oil and gas industry
https://www.gmsthailand.com/blog/steel-pipe-in-oil-gas-business/

[wm5398]

Offshore Oil and Gas

The extraction of offshore oil and gas is critical to the world's energy supply. It will necessitate increasingly sophisticated technology as well as increased environmental consciousness. Offshore production accounts for 30% of global oil output and 27% of global gas production. Despite considerable onshore development of unconventional resources such as oil sands and shale oil and gas, these percentages have been stable since the early 2000s. Offshore production now accounts for 20% of world oil reserves and 30% of global gas reserves

Cost and time constraints
Offshore production, like unconventional resources, is restricted by cost and the environment. Despite technological advances, each stage of oil and gas production, from discovery to drilling to extraction to platform and vessel construction, requires billions of dollars in investment. Each project's cost-competitiveness must be assessed independently. In response to environmental events like as the Macondo blowout in April 2010, companies are updating existing facilities, adjusting seabed installation designs, and strengthening best practices. Constant vigilance is required, especially while operating in such hazardous environments as the Arctic.

Deep-water output is increasing
  Offshore production in 200-meter-deep oceans began in the 1950s. On the seafloor, platforms with metal or concrete legs were constructed. Following the 1973 oil crisis, North Sea output increased dramatically. Half of today's 17,000 platforms are permanently anchored to the bottom. Firms began pushing deeper in the 1990s, between 400 and 1500 meters (deep-water) (ultra-deep water). Companies are currently producing oil at depths of up to 3,000 meters and want to reach 4,000 meters. To reach such depths, hundreds of meters of silt must be excavated through.

Offshore deep-water production is on the rise. The Libra offshore oil field development, for example, is located more than 200 kilometers south of Rio de Janeiro and seeks deposits 3,500 meters beneath a salt layer, which is 2,000 meters below the seabed. Deep-water production has increased from 3% in 2008 to 6% now

Deep-water production has certain disadvantages
  Instead of fixed platforms, deep-water production needs floating platforms connected to wellheads via flexible risers. Some risers transport water and gas to producing wells, while others transport oil to the surface. The risers are insulated to prevent the oil, which is extracted at temperatures exceeding 50°C, from cooling too quickly and clogging the pipes at deep-water conditions. Submarine stations are transforming into a sort of undersea factory, doing duties such as oil and gas separation.

  Pipelines can be laid by sophisticated boats and underwater robots to bring the oil onshore. If the oil field is more than 1,000 meters deep and too distant from the shore, the oil is produced, stored, and dumped using a barge or tanker. These FPSOs have a capacity of up to 2.5 million barrels of oil. A field may have many FPSOs, each of which can last 20–25 years. FLNG (floating liquefied natural gas) facilities are also being studied, which would allow for fast liquefaction of gas after production. There is no need for costly onshore gas pipelines and liquefaction plants, which frequently spark debate due to their environmental effects.

Offshore Exploration
  First and first, offshore oil and gas must be located. Soundwaves are used by companies such as Geophysical Surveys to examine the seafloor. The energy source in water is a series of compressed air-filled air-chambers of various diameters. The source emits high-pressure energy bursts into the water. The returning sound waves are detected and recorded by hydrophones deployed along cables. Strict mitigation measures are used throughout the procedure to safeguard marine mammals and other marine animals. Geophysical surveys are commonly used for oil and gas exploration, but they are also used to find sand and gravel for coastal restoration.

Drilling in the Ocean
  Once a promising resource has been located, firms will use MODUs to drill highly controlled exploration wells (MODUs). Some MODUs is converted into production rigs, which collect oil rather than drilling for it. The oil firm usually replaces the MODU with a permanent oil producing rig. MODUs is classified into four types
          - A SUBMARINE OR BARGE MODU is a barge that sits on the seafloor at a depth of 30 to 35 feet (9.1 to 10.7 meters). On the deck of the barge, steel pillars rise above the waterline. A drilling platform is supported by the steel pillars.
          - A jackup is a rig that floats on top of a barge. The ship tows the barge to the drill site. Once put up, the jackup's legs may be extended to the seabed. The legs are weighted so that they do not contact the ground. The jackup will continue to ratchet the legs until the platform is elevated above the water. This shields the rig from the effects of tides and waves. Jackups can work at depths of up to 525 feet (160 meters)
          - A drilling rig is located on the top deck of a drill ship. The drill goes all the way through the hull.
          - Drill ships use anchors and propellers to control drift while drilling for oil.
          - Semisubmersibles float on the ocean's surface on massive, submerged pontoons. Others necessitate the use of a second vessel to transport them to the drilling To hold the structure upright, most use up to a dozen anchors. Some can convert from drilling rigs to production rigs, reducing the need for a second rig if oil is discovered.

MODUs drill into the ocean floor to locate oil and gas resources. The riser is the part of the drill that travels beneath the deck and into the water. The riser is the piece that links the floor to the rig. Engineers insert a drill string, which is a group of pipes, through the riser. The blowout preventer is currently at sea (BOP). By hydraulically sealing the pipe leading up to the rig, an emergency blowout can be avoided. The BOP is one of several interconnected levels of offshore energy safety precautions.

Engineers use metal casings, similar to those used on land-based oil rigs, to support the well. Casings keep the well from collapsing. The walls of each casing are made of cement. Thinner casings are used in deeper wells. Drill bits become smaller as the depth of a hole increases. A liner hanger O-ring is used by engineers to seal each annulus where a thinner casing joins a larger one When the MODU encounters oil, engineers must plug the well. Two plugs will be used to plug the well bore by the engineers. Near the oil deposit. Drilling mud or seawater holds the plug-in place while engineers insert a top plug to cap the hole. A production rig may then take over.

Offshore Production
  Once a commercially viable well is found, and the limits are met, the focus shifts from exploration to production. Drilling in ultra-deep water at high temperatures and pressures is an offshore oil and gas industry marvel. Every offshore environment appears to have its own manufacturing platform. The permanent platform may be constructed at depths of up to 1500 feet in the sea.
          - For drilling and production activities, the Compliant Tower (CT) is a thin, flexible tower supported by a piled foundation. Unlike the fixed platform, the compliant tower can withstand significant lateral loads and is used at sea depths ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 feet.
          - The Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a floating structure that is fastened to the bottom by piles. Ankle tendons provide a broad variety of water depths while allowing for little vertical mobility. Larger TLPs have been successfully deployed at sea depths of 4,000 feet.
          - A floating mini-tension leg platform (Mini-TLP) was created to generate smaller deep-water reserves that would be uneconomical to extract using more traditional deep-water production technology. For larger deep-water discoveries, a utility, satellite, or early-production platform. In 1998, the world's first Mini-TLP was installed.
          - The SPAR Platform (SPAR) is a large diameter vertical cylinder with an attached deck.
          - The hull is moored by a taut catenary system of six to twenty lines anchored into the bottom. SPARs are now used at water depths of up to 3,000 feet, but current technology allows them to be used in depths of up to 7,500 feet.
          - A Floating Production System is a semi-submersible unit containing drilling and production equipment (FPS). It's held together with wire rope and chain and pushed about by spinning thrusters. Subsea well output is transferred to the surface deck through production risers designed to handle platform motion. The FPS might be rather high.

It might be a single subsea well supplying a neighboring platform, FPS, or TLP, or it could be a network of wells supplying a distant production facility via a manifold and pipeline system. Now used in marine depths of up to 5,000 feet

The FPSO is a large tanker that is permanently attached to the bottom. On an FPSO, oil generated from a neighboring subsea well is offloaded on a regular basis onto a smaller shuttle ship. The oil is subsequently transferred to an onshore processing plant by the shuttle tanker. An FPSO may be appropriate for marginal resources in remote deep-water sites without pipeline infrastructure.
https://www.gmsthailand.com/blog/offshore-oil-and-gas/

[khondee]

 

[View wan]

 

[wm5398]

Onshore Oil and Gas

Onshore work is associated with buildings/structures constructed on land near the coast for oil and gas exploration and extraction. Refineries and boreholes are examples of onshore operations

Large crude oil tanks for pre-processing storage may be found at onshore oil terminals. Tankers deliver oil to these tanks, which serve as buffers. The rate of oil tanker supply exceeds the plant's processing capacity. Even if the export route is unavailable, offshore manufacturing can continueTo heat the oil prior to separation, onshore oil terminals use fired heaters. They stabilize the oil, remove sediments and produced water, and allow light hydrocarbons to flash off. Large separation vessels allow the oil to stay in the vessel for an extended period of time, allowing it to effectively separate. To maximize vapor emission, onshore separators operate at near-atmospheric pressure. The oil processing factory works hard to meet the vapor pressure requirements of the oil. Use as a fuel gas or export it. Stabilized oil is transferred to storage tanks before being tankered overseas or to a local refinery for processing.

Liquid removal equipment may be found in onshore gas terminals. NGL, produced water, and glycol are examples of liquids (MEG or TEG). Liquid and gas are separated by slug catchers, which are either a network of pipelines or a huge cylindrical jar. To condition the gas, many treatment techniques are applied. Such operations include pre-user gas compression, glycol dehydration, and gas sweetening Because they may be positioned in the heart of a forest, a mountain top, a desert, or even a city or hamlet, onshore refineries are simpler to reach than offshore refineries. Onshore well drilling equipment is more easily available than offshore well drilling equipment. Because of significant land exploration and exploitation, the chances of discovering fresh oil and gas deposits on land are lower than in the waters

Furthermore, offshore oil and gas exploration presents more challenges than onshore exploration. Onshore refinery construction projects must consider ground strength and wind loads, whereas at sea, other factors such as currents and ocean waves must be considered. Refining necessitates the use of more complex human resources and expertise Offshore exploration also has higher operational costs than onshore exploration. The selection of structural materials for offshore projects cannot be left to chance. Consideration must be given to marine environmental factors such as corrosion and biota growth failure. An offshore rig has the advantage of being mobile because it extracts oil and gas from previous locations using floating platforms such as FPSOs and TLPs.

Drilling rigs, associated equipment such as casing and tubing, large amounts of water, and drilling muds are used in the development of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Oil and gas are either naturally pushed to the surface (if the reservoir has enough pressure) or artificially pushed to the surface (using a pump or other mechanism). The surface is the barrier that separates oil, gas, and water. Sour crude oil is crude oil containing more than 30 mg/m3 hydrogen sulfide. The crude oil may require additional processing, such as gas removal. The crude oil produced is piped or shipped to refineries.

The vast majority of natural gas is methane, with only trace amounts of other hydrocarbons. Gas well condensate may need to be processed. Common separation methods include pressure reduction, gravity separation, and emulsion "breaking." The gas produced can be used as a fuel or as a feedstock in the production of petrochemicals. Mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide may also be present. Amine scrubbing is a method of sweetening sour gas.

Drilling waste fluids, drilling waste solids, produced water, and volatile organic compounds are all produced during onshore oil and gas production. Drilling waste muds are classified into several types. Oil invert mud systems may contain up to 50% diesel oil. Drilling wastes may include, in addition to drilling muds (bentonite), additives (polymers, oxygen scavengers, biocides, and surfactants), lubricants, diesel oil, emulsifying agents, and other drilling-related wastes. Drill cuttings, flocculated bentonite, weighting materials, and other additives are all found in drilling waste solids. Used oils, cementing chemicals, and organic compounds are among the drilling wastes During crude oil field processing, heavy hydrocarbon residues and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are created (PAHs). There is also contaminated dirt, used oil, and discarded solvents

The majority of wastewaters include suspended particles. A biocide or hydrogen sulfide scavenger (such as sodium hypochlorite) is frequently employed before reinjecting or disposing of sour water. Pigging operations clean crude pipelines on a regular basis, resulting in spills and heavy metal sludge buildup. Backfill is a non-toxic solid waste product.

Onshore oil and gas, as well as geothermal energy
       - Drilling underground deposits is required for onshore oil and geothermal energy extraction. Prospecting refers to the systematic search for oil, gas, and geothermal deposits. Onshore oil and gas extraction is simpler and less expensive than offshore extraction. Seismic reflection is a technique used in the exploration of oil, gas, and geothermal deposits. In Germany, mature onshore fields with a large maximum extraction volume and a long extraction phase are frequently used for crude oil extraction.

Conventional Oil Extraction onshore
       - There are three levels of difficulty in conventional extraction: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Unconventional Oil Extraction onshore
       - As conventional oil reserves dwindle, crude oil is being extracted from unconventional deposits such as oil sands or oil shale
https://www.gmsthailand.com/blog/onshore-oil-and-gas/

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Subsea Oil and Gas

Petroleum is a fossil fuel that includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid hydrocarbons. Petroleum is discovered in the Earth's crust in porous rock formations. Huge amounts of oil and gas have been extracted in recent years from "tight" rock formations such as shale. The world's second largest oil reservoir is the Athabasca tar sands in Alberta, Canada. Oil has become the world's primary energy source due to its high energy density, ease of transport, and relative availability. Petroleum is also utilized in the production of pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and polymers.

Petroleum has been in use since prehistoric times. Babylon's walls and towers were built with asphalt extracted from oil mines along the banks of the Issus River, a tributary of the Euphrates. In ancient Persia, petroleum was also used for medicine and illumination. Bamboo-drilled wells were producing oil in China by 347 AD.

Abraham Gessner of Nova Scotia, Canada, devised a method to produce kerosene from coal in 1846. The first large refinery was created in Ploesti, Romania, in 1856, using indigenous oil. Edwin Drake's Titusville, Pennsylvania, well in 1859 is commonly considered as the first modern oil well. Drake's well was drilled rather than dug, was driven by a steam engine, and was sponsored by a company, and it resulted in the first substantial oil boom. From then on, "rock oil" began to supersede whale oil as the primary source of light fuel. In the 1800s, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) was developed. In the early twentieth century, the internal combustion engine and its development into cars created a need for gasoline. This accelerated the industry's expansion.

The widespread use of natural gas as a fuel is novel. Crude oil is produced by an oil well. However, dissolved gas is released when crude oil is brought to the surface and exposed to reduced pressure. Due to its lower density, a "cap" of natural gas may float above the oil depending on the reservoir. Historically, there was less gas infrastructure, and gas was considered an annoyance. What couldn't be used to power machinery was either buried or flared off (burned). Natural gas has become an important source of heating and electricity generation due to its extensive infrastructure.

Oil and gas account for more than 60% of total energy consumption in the United States, with oil used for transportation and gas used for electricity generation. Oil and gas, like all fossil fuels, are nonrenewable energy sources with finite supplies, according to experts. However, technology has always played an important role in oil and gas exploration. Supply and demand determine oil and gas prices, and as prices rise, so do technological innovations. This has enabled the United States and the rest of the world to constantly seek out and exploit new sources of oil and gas to replenish those that have been depleted over time.

There are numerous inland and offshore oil and gas fields around the world, and the term subsea refers to the exploration, drilling, and development of these fields. Underwater oil fields and infrastructure are referred to as subsea wells, subsea fields, subsea projects, and subsea developments.

There are two types of subsea oil field development: shallow water and deep water. When bottom-based facilities such as jack up drilling rigs and permanent offshore structures are used, saturation diving is possible at shallow water depths. Deepwater refers to offshore operations that necessitate the use of floating drilling boats and floating oil platforms, as well as remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs), because human diving is impractical.

The first subsea completion took place in Lake Erie in 1943, in 35 feet (11 meters) of water. Diver intervention was necessary for the installation, maintenance, and flow line connections of a land-type Christmas tree. In 1961, Shell drilled their first subsea well.

They were intended for use at depths of up to a few hundred meters. In the intervening years, technology has advanced to allow for deep-water production, and the industry is constantly expanding its reach through the use of fixed platforms, compliant towers, SPAR (single point anchor reservoir), and FPSOs (Floating Production Storage Offloading).

A subsea development is an oil or gas field that is located on the seafloor. Semi-submersible mobile drilling rigs are used to drill wells from the water's surface. A "wet tree" is then used to seal the wells on the seafloor. Most subsea systems use underwater flowlines to transport production to a surface processing system. A simple subsea system consists of a single well that feeds a nearby platform. Multiple wells flow through a subsea manifold and then to a production plant, which could be offshore or onshore. Figure 1 displays a number of subsea production components that are coupled to floating facilities.

Total field development expenses are reduced because an existing platform may be used for production or a dedicated platform can be located in shallower water.

The first underwater completion occurred in Lake Erie in 1943, at a depth of 35 feet. In 1961, Shell built the first subsea well off the coast of California. Companies focused on fixed platform technology with dry trees after initially showing interest in California and the Gulf of Mexico. During that time, Norway advanced subsea technology, beginning with the 1982 Frigg field in the North Sea and continuing for decades. Oil companies, particularly Shell USA and Petrobras Brazil, continued to develop subsea systems for deep-water applications. Shell's Mensa field in the US Gulf of Mexico began producing in 5,376 feet of water in July 1997, breaking the previous record. Shell's Tobago project in the Gulf of Mexico is the deepest subsea development at the moment.

Operators are now placing processing equipment on the seafloor thanks to advancements in subsea technology. Gas-liquid separation, electrical submersible pumps, and sand management are examples of technologies. The development of process technology is centered on oil-water separation and subsea produced water disposal. To extract offshore reserves, topside equipment (pump, separator, water handling, compressors, processing, and storage) is used. Surface facilities are expensive, and space in deep or remote waters is limited, making production difficult.

Production risers, flow lines, and associated production control systems comprise the subsea production system. A subsea production system manages fluid production and transportation, enabling for the exploitation of remote and/or deep-water deposits by installing wellheads and associated mechanical and electrical equipment on the seafloor.

Surface or shore infrastructure can be linked to subsea wells. Modularized subsea technology can improve recovery factors by lowering well backpressures while also cutting development and production expenses (e.g. via multiphase pumping or subsea separation). Subsea technology is gaining traction in West Africa, Brazil, and Asia.

The oil industry has been able to develop reserves in greener areas and water depths down to over 3000 meters by moving from dry land to shallow-water areas via wellhead platforms, and then into deeper water depths of a few hundred meters. Improved subsea solutions, such as better drilling equipment, installation technologies, and control systems, are required to meet increasing criteria. As new technologies enable the design and installation of more advanced subsea systems, the subsea industry is undergoing a transformation. Subsea processing units, for example, can use pumps or compressors to separate different fluid phases and boost the fluids (subsea factory).

Small fields are linked to bigger facilities and field centers by subsea plants. Subsea technology extends the life of existing platforms and infrastructure, allowing for greater extraction of resources from the field. Advances in subsea technology allow for development in ultra-deep seas. Subsea plants can be linked to onshore processing facilities in no-frills areas. Production can be managed on the ground or through linked-in installations. Extreme weather rarely has an impact on the amenities.

Subsea technology enables more environmentally friendly offshore development and operations. Reduced ship and helicopter traffic during operations lowers emissions, while remotely controlled technology lowers high-risk activities
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Designs for Cryogenic Tanks

Liquid-storage vessels
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) is typically stored in cylindrical tanks. Spherical tanks can carry a significant amount of liquid. Cryogenic tanks are vacuum insulated to minimize evaporation losses and contain redundant pressure release mechanisms to prevent over-pressurization. Liquid hydrogen tanks typically operate at pressures of up to 850 kPa (123 psi).

The pressure release system will function at a maximum pressure of 1,035 kPa (150 psi) in most tanks. Even if hydrogen is not drawn from the tank, LH2 evaporation will occur, and the resulting pressure will be released on a regular basis by the pressure relief mechanism as part of normal operation.

Cryogenic tanks are constructed and manufactured in accordance with well-established norms such as:
             - The US Department of Transportation's restrictions apply to transportable storage tanks.
             - Transport Canada imposes limitations on mobile storage tanks.
             - Regulations such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) apply to stationary storage tanks.
             - Larger tanks are occasionally designed in line with standards such as API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
             - Stationary tank supports should be able to resist fire exposure without failing.

The paperwork for each vessel should include a description of the vessel, a list of available drawings or other materials, the most recent inspection results, and the name of the responsible person. Vessels must also be marked in accordance with the applicable regulations. Each cryogenic liquid storage tank (stationary and mobile) should be legibly labeled "LIQUEFIED HYDROGEN – FLAMMABLE GAS."

A warning labeled "Do not spray water on or into the vent hole" should be displayed on the vessel near the pressure-relief valve vent stack. Local first responders and firefighters should be specially trained in LH2 spill response tactics.

Cryogenic liquids and the containers in which they are stored
Cryogenic tanks are used to safeguard cryogenic liquids. Cryogenic liquids are liquefied gases that have temperatures of -150 °C or below. Byproducts include oxygen, argon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium. Cryogenic tanks may also be used to store gases at higher temperatures, such as LNG, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide. These are components of gas supply systems used in a number of sectors including metal processing, medical technology, electronics, water treatment, energy generation, and food processing. Low temperature chilling uses using cryogenic liquids include engineering shrink fitting, food freezing, and bio-sample storage.

Cryogenic tanks are thermally insulated and are typically equipped with a vacuum jacket. They are created and manufactured to stringent standards in compliance with international design criteria. They might be fixed, movable, or transportable.

Static cryogenic tanks are designed for permanent usage; however, transportable small tanks on wheels for use in workshops and laboratories are provided. Because static cryogenic tanks are typically classified as pressure vessels, new tanks and their associated systems will be built and installed in accordance with the Pressure Equipment (Safety) Regulations. For applications requiring direct access to the liquid, non-pressurized open neck vessels (Dewar flasks) are also available. The tanks are available in a range of sizes, pressures, and flow rates to meet the different demands of the customers. Tanks used to transport cryogenic liquids must comply with the Regulations on the Carriage of Dangerous Goods and the Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment.

Use, operation, maintenance, and disposal of cryogenic tanks
All applicable regulations, such as the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations for static tanks and the Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations for transportable tanks, must be followed when operating and maintaining cryogenic tanks. Cryogenic tanks must be maintained and operated by trained personnel.

The Regulations require cryogenic tanks to be inspected on a regular basis, as well as routinely maintained and subjected to formal examinations on a periodic basis for static tanks. To ensure that the tank is in safe operating condition between official examination times, an inspection and maintenance program should be created. This will include a Written Plan of Examination, which will be created by a competent person(s), as well as periodic formal examinations conducted in accordance with the scheme.

Transportable tanks must be inspected and tested on a regular basis, which may only be done by an Inspection Body recognized by the National Competent Authority, Department for Transport, in the United Kingdom (DfT). The Vehicle Certification Agency (VCA) website provides information on Examination Bodies that have been assigned to execute various tasks relating to tank and/or pressure equipment inspection. All inspections, examinations, and tests are documented, and these documents must be kept for the duration of the tank's life.

Cryogenic tank users and owners have legal obligations as well as a duty of care to ensure that their equipment is properly maintained and operated. The user must undertake routine safety inspections. Daily inspections must be carried out. A gas company will only fill a tank if it believes it is safe to do so. While in use, a small amount of icing and ice may be visible. Small levels of ice are not cause for concern, but the quantity of ice should be checked on a frequent basis. To minimize excessive ice collection, de-icing should be conducted if ice continues to accumulate.

Cryogenic tank repair and modification
Any repair or modification to a cryogenic tank should be performed only by a skilled repairer in accordance with the design codes to which it was constructed, while taking current regulations and legislation into account. Such repairs or adjustments must not affect the structural integrity or the operation of any protective systems. All repairs and adjustments must be documented, and the documentation must be kept for the rest of the tank's life.

Cryogenic tank revalidation
Cryogenic tanks must be assessed on a regular basis to ensure that they are safe to use. The revalidation period, which shall not exceed 20 years, shall be determined by a Competent Person. Mobile tanks should be rented for a shorter period of time due to the nature of their function. When a tank is revalidated, a report is created that must be kept with the tank data for the life of the tank.

Security for Cryogenic Tanks
Liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and liquid argon are examples of cryogenic liquids. Their respective boiling points are as follows:
            - -297.3oF | -183oC • -320.4°F | -195.8°C
            - Liquid Oxygen Nitrogen in liquid form
            - -302.6°F (-185.9°C) Argon Liquid
            - The sublimation point of liquid CO2 is -109.3°F | -78.5°C.
To prevent heat transfer and sustain very low temperatures, the storage vessel must be correctly constructed. The water capacity of commercially available liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and liquid argon storage tanks ranges from 350 to 13,000 US gallons (1,325 to 49,210 liters). The storage tanks for Cryogenic Bulk Tanks may be vertical, spherical, or horizontal, depending on the location and consumption demands.

Cryogenic liquid storage tanks are made up of three major components:
• Vessel of Internal Pressure
A cryogenic vessel made of stainless steel or other materials with high strength when exposed to cryogenic temperatures.

• The Outer Vessel
A vessel made of carbon steel or stainless steel. Under normal operating conditions, this vessel maintains the insulation around the inner pressure vessel and can also maintain a vacuum around the inner vessel. Most of the time, the external vessel is not exposed to cryogenic temperatures.

• Insulation
The vacuum-sealed space between the inner and outer vessels, which is filled with several inches of insulating material. The vacuum and insulating material help to reduce heat transfer and, as a consequence, the boil-off of the liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, or liquid argon contained inside the vessel.

The inner vessel of a storage tank is typically designed to sustain a maximum allowed operating pressure of 250 psig (1724 kPa). Vessels may be designed for higher or lower working pressures, as well as for specific uses. The service pressure of the vessel may be adjusted.
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What exactly is steel pipe?

Steel pipe has been manufactured in the United States since the early 1800s. Pipe is a hollow piece having a circular cross- section that is used to convey items such as fluids, gas, pellets, powders, and more. Steel pipes, on the other hand, are employed in a number of applications. They are used to transmit water and gas underground across cities and villages. They are also used in building to safeguard electrical wiring. Steel pipes may be both robust and light. As a result, they are ideal for bicycle frames. They are also utilized in the manufacture of vehicle components, refrigeration equipment, heating and plumbing systems, flagpoles, and street lighting, to mention a few.

The outer diameter (OD) and wall thickness are the two most essential dimensions for a pipe (WT). The internal diameter (ID) of a pipe is determined by OD minus 2 times WT (schedule), which defines the pipe's liquid capacity. When we speak about pipe in our profession, we usually refer to it by its (ID) and schedule, such as 2-inch schedule 40 or 14 inch extra heavy. Sch. 40, Sch. 80, Sch. Standard (STD), Sch. XS/XH, and Sch. XXS are examples of walls or schedules. The majority of pipe is offered in lengths of 21 or 42 feet.

What exactly is Steel Tube?
The term tube refers to hollow portions that are round, square, rectangular, or oval and are utilized for pressure apparatus, mechanical applications, and instrumentation systems.

Steel tube may be manufactured using a variety of basic ingredients, including iron, carbon, manganese, vanadium, and zirconium. Tubing, like pipe, may be made as either seamless or welded. Seamless tubing is made from a solid piece of steel that is rolled into a circular form before being perforated and stretched to its full length. Consider a wad of play dough and shaping it into a cylinder. Then, using the leftover dough, press your finger into the center and lengthen it. That's how it's made, but it's hot and whirling and all automated. Welded steel tube, on the other hand, is produced from coil. The coil is sliced and rolled into a circular form before the ends are soldered together. From then, the tubing may be cut to a certain length as round tubing or further distorted into different forms such as square, rectangular, oval, and so on.

Tubes are labeled with their outer diameter (OD) and wall thickness (WT), both in inches and millimeters. Buyers in our business often refer to the item they seek as a (OD) and a wall thickness (WT). Wall thicknesses such as 11 gauge, 1/4″, 3/8″ and 5/8″ are examples. Tubing is often available in lengths of 20, 24, 40, and 48 feet, although bespoke lengths are readily made.

Is it a tube or a pipe?
Although the names are often used interchangeably, there is one significant distinction between tube and pipe, notably in how the material is arranged and toleranced. Because tubing is utilized in structural applications, the outer diameter is the most essential dimension. Tubes are often used in applications requiring exact outer diameters, such as medical equipment. The outer diameter is significant because it indicates how much weight it can support as a stability element. Pipes, on the other hand, are often used to carry gases or liquids, therefore knowing the capacity is critical. Knowing how much water can flow through the pipe is critical. The pipe's round form makes it effective at managing pressure from the liquid running through it.

Classification
Pipes are classified according to their schedule and nominal diameter. Pipe is normally ordered in accordance with the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) standard, with a nominal diameter (pipe size) and schedule number specified (wall thickness). The schedule number on various sizes of pipe may be the same, but the actual wall thickness will vary.

Tubes are usually ordered by outer diameter and wall thickness, but they may also be ordered by OD & ID or ID and Wall Thickness. The wall thickness of a tube determines its strength. A gauge number specifies the thickness of a tube. Larger outer diameters are indicated by smaller gauge numbers. The interior diameter (ID) is a theoretical measurement. Tubes may be square, rectangular, or cylindrical in form, while pipe is always round. The circular form of the pipe distributes the pressure load equally. Pipes are used for bigger purposes and come in diameters ranging from 12 inch to several feet. Tubing is often utilized in applications that demand lower sizes.

Purchasing Tubing or Pipe
Tubing is usually ordered by outer diameter and wall thickness, but it may also be ordered by OD & ID or ID and Wall Thickness. Although tubing contains three dimensions (O.D., I.D., and wall thickness), only two of them may be defined with tolerances, while the third is purely theoretical. Tubing is often ordered and kept to stricter tolerances and requirements than pipe. Pipe is normally ordered in accordance with the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) standard, with a nominal diameter (pipe size) and schedule number specified (wall thickness). Tubes and pipes may both be cut, bent, flared, and constructed – see our top 10 ordering advice for tubing and piping.

Characteristics
There are a few fundamental differences between tubes and pipes:
- Shape
Pipe is usually circular in shape. Tubes come in square, rectangular, and circular shapes.

- Measurement
Outside diameter and wall thickness are frequently selected when ordering tubes. Tubing is often held to stricter tolerances and requirements than pipe. Pipe is commonly ordered using the nominal pipe size (NPS) standard, with the nominal diameter (pipe size) and schedule number specified (wall thickness)

- Capabilities for Telescoping
Telescopes may be used on tubes. Telescoping tubes are ideal for applications that need many pieces of material to be sleeved or expanded within one another.

- Rigidity
Pipe is unyielding and cannot be shaped without the use of specialized tools. Tubes can be shaped with considerable effort, with the exception of copper and brass. Tubing can be bent and coiled without causing severe deformation, wrinkling, or breaking.

- Applications
Tubes are employed in applications that need a precise outer diameter, such as medical equipment. The outer diameter is significant because it indicates how much weight it can support as a stability element. Pipes are used to transfer gases or liquids, therefore knowing their capacity is critical. The pipe's round form makes it effective at managing pressure from the liquid running through it.

- Metal Forms
Tubes may be cold or hot rolled. Only hot rolled pipe is available. They may both be galvanized.

- Sizing
Larger applications may be accommodated by size pipes. Tubing is often utilized in applications requiring tiny diameters.

- Strength
Tubes are more durable than pipe. Tubes outperform other materials in situations requiring durability and strength.

Types of steel pipe fittings
Pipe fittings are constructed from a variety of steels, including:
            - Galvanized Steel: Galvanized steel is coated with layers of zinc by a chemical process to protect it against rust and corrosion. Galvanized steel is resistant to rust and corrosion and is widely used in the manufacture of pipe fittings and pipe. Galvanized steel also extends the life of pipe fittings. Galvanized steel fittings are offered in conventional diameters ranging from 8mm to 150mm. Galvanized pipe fittings are often made from seamless tube, forgings, rolling bar, or welded tube in accordance with particular specifications. Galvanized steel pipe fittings are used for all sorts of pipes inside a structure. They are also used in water distribution lines, but not in gas pipes.
            - Carbon Steel: Carbon steel is far more durable and stronger than other types of steel, making it ideal for the manufacture of pipe fittings. Carbon steel, often known as simple carbon steel, is a malleable iron-based metal that contains mostly carbon and trace quantities of manganese and other metals. Steel may be cast to shape or worked into different mill forms from which final products are made, forged, stamped, machined, or otherwise shaped. Carbon is the primary hardening and strengthening ingredient in steel, providing maximum hardness and strength but decreasing ductility and weldability. Carbon steel pipe fittings are available in a variety of sizes and forms. Again, there are certain butt-weld carbon fittings with beveled edges that produce a shallower channel for the bead of weld that holds the component together. Butt-weld fittings are primarily utilized to link pipe sections when permanent and welded connections are needed. Butt-weld steel fittings are used to make elbows, reducers, tees, and other similar items. Carbon steel fittings are used in pipe systems that transport liquids or gases such as oil, water, natural gas, or steam. Aside from that, carbon steel fittings are in great demand in residential construction, commercial construction, electric power generation, petroleum refining, shipbuilding, and other industrial-use industries.
            - Stainless steel: Because it is extremely resistant to oxidation and corrosion in a variety of natural and man-made settings, stainless steel is frequently utilized in the manufacture of pipe fittings. Stainless steel is a ferrous alloy that contains at least 10% chromium. It is critical to choose the correct grade of stainless steel for a certain application. Stainless steel is used in a variety of pipe fittings such as tees, unions, elbows, and so on. Household pipes are often fitted with stainless steel fittings.
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An Overview of Cogeneration Operations

What Is the Process of a Cogeneration Plant?
When a power plant creates electricity, it also generates heat. If the plant emits that heat into the atmosphere as exhaust, it constitutes a massive waste of energy. The majority of the heat may be collected and reused. When heat is repurposed, the power plant operates as a cogeneration system.

The cogeneration process may improve total energy efficiency, with typical systems achieving efficiency levels ranging from 65 to 90 percent. Businesses that employ cogeneration may reduce greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants while lowering operating costs and increasing self-sufficiency.

The History of CHP
Thomas Edison, widely regarded as America's greatest inventor, planned and completed Pearl Street Station in New York City in 1892.

The idea of combining heat and electricity is not new. CHP was utilized in Europe and the United States as early as 1880 to 1890. Many companies employed their own coal-fired power plants to create the energy that powered their mills, factories, or mines during those years.

As a byproduct, the steam was utilized to provide thermal energy for different industrial operations or to heat the area.

In 1882, Thomas Edison planned and constructed the first commercial power plant in the United States, which also occurred to be a cogeneration facility. The thermal waste of Edison's Pearl Street Station in New York was sent as steam to local factories, as well as heating neighboring buildings.

The Rise and Fall of CHP Utilization
CHP systems provided around 58 percent of the total on-site electrical power generated in industrial enterprises in the United States in the early 1900s. According to "Cogeneration: Technologies, Optimization, and Implementation," edited by Christos A. Frangopoulos, that number had dropped to barely 5% by 1974.

There were several explanations for the precipitous drop.
Electricity from central power grids grew more dependable and less expensive to purchase, while fuel, such as natural gas, became more affordable, making privately owned coal-fired on-site power plants less appealing. In addition, the government raised the quantity and scope of rules and limitations pertaining to power generating. However, as fuel prices surged in 1973 and public awareness of the detrimental impacts of pollution expanded, cogeneration regained prominence.

Why Should You Use Cogeneration?
Cogeneration has a number of advantages. The primary motivations for using CHP are to save energy and money by lowering fuel use. Existing CHP customers in the United Kingdom, for example, save 20% on their energy bills.

When fuel energy is turned into mechanical or electrical energy via CHP, the majority of the heat emitted is not squandered. Less fuel is required to perform the same quantity of productive work as a typical power plant.

This lower fuel consumption has various advantages, including:
         - Reduced gasoline expenses
         - Fuel storage and transportation requirements are reduced.
         - Emissions reduction — CHP is one of the most cost-effective methods of reducing carbon emissions.
         - Machine wear is minimized as a result of reduced pollution exposure.
         - Another advantage is security.

Cogeneration is regarded as a secure power source since it produces stand-alone electricity that is not reliant on a municipal power system. A cogeneration-powered firm may operate off-grid or simply supplement to meet a rise in power demand.

The Basic Elements of a Cogeneration Plant
A typical cogeneration facility, at its most basic, consists of an electricity generator and a heat-recovery system. Here are some fundamental components of a CHP system:
          - Prime movers: These machines convert fuel into heat and electrical energy, which may then be utilized to create mechanical energy. Gas turbines and reciprocating engines are examples of primary movers.
          - Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by an electrical generator.
          - System of heat recovery: Heat is captured from the primary mover.
          - Heat exchanger: Ensures that the collected heat is used.

What Are the Fuels Used in Cogeneration Plants?
Cogeneration facilities may run on a range of fuels, including natural gas, diesel, gasoline, coal, and biofuels.

Biofuels used in cogeneration are generally produced from renewable resources such as landfill gas and agricultural solid waste.

CHP systems are classified into two kinds.
          - Cycle plants at the top: The production of power is the first step in a topping cycle system.
         - Plants in the bottoming cycle: The first step is to create heat – waste heat generates steam, which is subsequently utilized to generate electricity.

Bottoming cycle plants may be found in businesses that employ very hot furnaces. They are less prevalent than topping cycle plants, because to the ease with which surplus power may be sold.

Who Can Benefit from Cogeneration?
Heat and electricity are in high demand in the industrial sector. Metal makers, for example, largely employ heat, while others mostly use electricity. Other businesses need varied amounts of heat and power.

A recycled energy system may help in any circumstance. A factory that uses more heat than electricity may sell the heat to a utility, and surplus power can be sold in the same way.

There are three sizes of cogeneration plants:
            - Small: The military, colleges, and non-utility corporations run several small CHP plants in the United States and Canada. What they have in common is a strong demand for energy, as well as a pressing need for dependable and self-sufficient energy sources. According to a Scientific American article, a computer networking firm that uses CHP saves roughly $300,000 in energy expenditures each year.
           - Medium: The market for medium-scale cogeneration systems is expanding. According to David Flin's "Cogeneration: A User's Guide," medium-scale units produce 50 to 500 kW of electricity. This category includes industries that demand significant heat and energy loads, such as hospitals and hotels.
           - Large: Large CHP plants may be found in energy-intensive industries like as oil refineries and food processing plants. These may generate 500 kW or more of electricity.

Cogeneration makes sense when the necessary circumstances are met. It's a dependable and efficient solution to offer on-site electricity that's both inexpensive and ecologically friendly.

A thorough knowledge of steam-urbine operating and power generating costs may aid in increasing total cogeneration profitability. This article explains the fundamental economics of cogeneration.

Cogeneration enables a facility to lessen its dependency on external electrical energy purchases by utilizing steam to spin turbines and create electricity. This article outlines best practices for steam cogeneration system selection, operation, integration, and control.
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